Wine vinegar, the base of seasoning in Italian cuisine

Wine vinegar is the basis of salad dressings and many other traditional preparations of Italian cuisine. This acidic and aromatic liquid hides a millenary history, a fascinating biochemical process, and a universe of qualitative nuances that elevate it from a simple consumer product to a true protagonist of enogastronomic culture. Vinegar is indeed the result of a second fermentation, a microbiological journey that transforms wine, produced by the alcoholic fermentation of yeasts, into a new entitywith unique properties.

Ancient History of a Missed Waste

The word vinegar derives from Latin  acetum, which in turn comes from the verb  acere, ‘to be sour’. This etymology already reveals its primary characteristic. However, its history is much older than Roman civilization.

The earliest evidence of vinegar use dates back to  over ten thousand years ago, alongside the birth of agriculture and the production of alcoholic beverages. Babylonians and Egyptians, skilled brewers and winemakers, soon noticed that these drinks, when left exposed to air, underwent a natural transformation into an acidic liquid. Instead of discarding it, they learned to valorize it, following an ancestral logic of circular economy.

Hippocrates' Recipe

In antiquity, vinegar was not primarily considered a condiment but rather a powerful tool for health and food preservation.  Hippocrates, the father of Western medicine who lived in the 4th century BC, prescribed its use mixed with honey or other substances to relieve coughs and respiratory diseases, intuitively recognizing its antiseptic properties (Cortesia et al. 2014).

I Roman soldiers, during long military campaigns, drank a mixture of water and vinegar called ‘posca’, which not only quenched thirst but, thanks to its acidity,  helped disinfect the water, often contaminated, preventing infectious diseases.

A Precious Food Preservative

Besides its medicinal and thirst-quenching use, vinegar proved essential as  a food preservative  in an era without refrigeration. Acidity lowers the pH of the food, creating an inhospitable environment for most pathogenic bacteria and spoilage microorganisms. The practice of marinating meat and fish in vinegar, or preserving vegetables in vinegar, was therefore a matter of survival, a way to extend food availability beyond its seasonality.

This dual nature as a remedy and preservative characterized vinegar for much of human history, until, in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, it also began to be appreciated for its  gastronomic qualities, especially in the Italian and European courts.

The science of transformation: from yeasts to acetic bacteria

To fully understand the nature of vinegar, it is necessary to take a step back and consider wine, its raw material. Wine is the product of alcoholic fermentation, an anaerobic process (in the absence of oxygen) in which yeasts, mainly of the genus Saccharomyces, consume the sugars present in the grape must producing ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and carbon dioxide. Vinegar, on the other hand, is the product of an  acetic fermentation, an aerobic process (requiring oxygen) driven by specific bacteria.

The protagonists of this second transformation are the  acetic bacteria, gram-negative microorganisms belonging mainly to the genera  Acetobacter e Gluconobacter, also typical of the microbial composition of kefir grains kefir. These bacteria have an enzyme, alcohol dehydrogenase, that allows them to oxidize the ethyl alcohol present in the wine. Through a chemical reaction involving oxygen from the air, ethanol is first converted into acetaldehyde and then into acetic acid, the main component of vinegar that determines its characteristic sour taste.

Two methods of fermentation

There are two main methods to carry out this fermentation: the slow method, also called the French or Orléans method, and the fast method, or German method with vinegar generators.

The  slow method, used for the production of high-quality vinegars, takes place in wooden barrels. The wine is placed in containers not completely full, so as to have a surface in contact with air. The acetic bacteria, naturally present in the environment or inoculated via a 'mother' of vinegar (a gelatinous biofilm rich in these bacteria), work slowly on the surface of the liquid. This process, which  can last months or even years, allows the development of complex aromas and scents, since esterification and evolution reactions occur simultaneously, which round off the acidity.

The  fast method, instead, uses generators (such as the Frings generator) that force air through wood chips soaked with acetic bacteria, onto which the wine is dripped. This highly oxygenated system greatly accelerates the conversion of alcohol into acetic acid, completing the process in  a few hours or days. Although efficient, this method tends to produce a more aggressive and less aromatic vinegar, as it does not allow the necessary time for maturation and refinement of secondary aromas.

Chemical-physical properties and nutritional profile

Wine vinegar is a diluted aqueous solution of acetic acid. Italian law states that a product must contain at least 6% acetic acid to be marketed as 'vinegar'. However, its composition is much more complex.

Besides acetic acid (which typically represents between 5% and 12% of the volume), wine vinegar contains  a wide range of other components which come from the starting wine and develop during aging. Among these are fixed acids (such as tartaric and malic acid), mineral salts (especially potassium), polyphenols and tannins (especially in red wine vinegar), and traces of residual alcohol. It is these minor compounds that determine the aromatic profile, color, and complexity of a quality vinegar.

Functional properties

Wine vinegar provides about 20 kcal/100 ml, mainly due to acetic acid and, to a lesser extent, residues of alcohol and carbohydrates. Its value in nutrition is linked to some functional properties reported in the literature:

• acetic acid has been shown in several studies to influence sugar metabolism. Its intake in a carbohydrate-rich meal can moderate the glycemic index, reducing the blood glucose peak after eating (Johnston et al., 2005; Johnston et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2016; Shishehbor et al., 2017);
• acidity stimulates the production of gastric juices, favoring digestion (Pazuch et al., 2015; Perumpuli and Dilrukshi, 2022) and the health of intestinal microbiota (Wu et al., 2023; Xia et al., 2024);
• I polyphenols, present in greater amounts in red wine vinegar, contribute with their antioxidant activity to counteracting oxidative stress in cells (Chou et al., 2015; Xia et al., 2021; Xia et al., 2022).

The  antibacterial properties of acetic acid, historically used for preservation, are well documented and also make it a useful agent for domestic food hygiene (Italian Medicines Agency, AIFA, 2014).

Vinegar in the kitchen: between regional tradition and creativity

In the kitchen, wine vinegar is a versatile condiment that serves several functions, far beyond enriching a salad. The choice between red and white wine vinegar is not only aesthetic but depends on the preparation.

thered wine vinegar, generally more structured and tannic, is ideal for marinades of robust red meats, for flavoring braised and stewed dishes, and for preparing reduced sauces. It is the main ingredient in signature dishes such as ‘peverada’, a Venetian sauce based on chicken livers, or as an accompaniment to boiled meats. Its intense color makes it less suitable for dishes where a clear color is desired.

thewhite wine vinegar, more acidic and less invasive aromatically, is preferable for dressing green salads, marinating fish and white meats, preparing mayonnaise and delicate sauces, and pickling vegetables (gherkins, pearl onions). It is the fundamental ingredient of ‘carpione’, a typical Northern Italian marinade for fried fish, and of sweet and sour sauce.

Aged Italian wine vinegar

Italy also boasts specialties of  aged wine vinegar, although less famous than traditional balsamic vinegar.

In  TuscanyFor example, red wine vinegars aged for years in precious wooden barrels are produced in Tuscany, which thus acquire a remarkable aromatic complexity with hints of wood, dried fruit, and spices, ideal for enjoying drop by drop on aged cheeses or a simple slice of toasted bread. Similar traditions exist in  Piedmont and in other wine regions.

The added value of organic vinegar

The choice of an  organic wine vinegar represents a further step towards quality and sustainability. The fundamental difference lies in the raw material: the wine. For a vinegar to be organic, it must be produced exclusively from wine obtained from grapes grown according to the organic farming method.

This implies the absolute prohibition of using synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and chemical fertilizers in the vineyard. Organic viticulture is based on the natural fertility of the soil, biological pest control, and the promotion of biodiversity.

Less sulfites

Another crucial advantage concerns  sulfites (sulfur dioxide, E220-E228), additives used in oenology as antioxidants and antiseptics. Organic wine must comply with significantly lower added sulfite limits compared to conventional wine (100 mg/l for red wines and 150 mg/l for white and rosé wines, that is  50 mg less for each category, compared to the levels allowed in non-organic wines). Consequently, organic vinegar will naturally contain a lower amount of these compounds, resulting in a purer product that is better tolerated by sensitive individuals.

Finally, and this is a fundamental point, EU regulation 1308/2013 establishes that ‘thewine vinegar is the vinegar: a) obtained exclusively from the acetic fermentation of wine and b) having a total acidity expressed as acetic acid of not less than 60 g/l’. In fact, it is  forbidden to use synthetic acetic acid (E260) to correct the acidity of the final product. An organic wine vinegar owes its acidity exclusively to the natural acetic fermentation process.

Superior Quality vs Low-Cost Products

There is a qualitative gap between a high-end wine vinegar and low-cost products. A superior quality vinegar is recognized by several factors: origin from a good quality wine (often indicated on the label), the production method (slow, in wood), a possible aging period, and a balanced acetic acid level, not excessively aggressive. The color must be clear, the aroma complex and winey, the taste harmonious, with acidity that does not overpower but enhances other flavors.

At the opposite extreme are the low-cost products. Price competition has led to the proliferation of vinegars that, while legal, are of poor quality. They are often made from very low-quality wines or winemaking by-products, fermented quickly and aggressively.

To select the best Italian wine vinegar productions, international buyers can rely on  GIFT (Great Italian Food Trade), liaison with the most reliable vinegar producers.

On the cover, image by Hans from Pixabay.

Marta Strinati

References

– AIFA (2014) Acetic acid is an effective tuberculocidal disinfectant according to a study on mBIO. (Accessed: 26 September 2025).

– Bourgeois, J., & Barja, F. (2009). The history of vinegar and of its acetification systems.  Archives des Sciences, 62, 147–160.

– Chen, H., Chen, T., Giudici, P., & Chen, F. (2016). Vinegar functions on health: Constituents, sources, and formation mechanisms. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 15(6), 1124–1138.  https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12228

– Chou, C. et al. (2015) ‘Amino acid , mineral , and polyphenolic profiles of black vinegar , and its lipid lowering and antioxidant effects in vivo’, Food Chemistry, 168, pp. 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.07.035

– Cortesia, C. et al. (2014) ‘Acetic Acid , the Active Component of Vinegar , Is an Effective Tuberculocidal Disinfectant’, mBio, 5(2), pp. 13–16. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00013-14.

– Directive 2008/84/EC of the Commission defining specific purity criteria for food additives other than colorants and sweeteners. (2008). Official Journal of the European Union.

– Johnston, C. S., & Buller, A. J. (2005). Vinegar and peanut products as complementary foods to reduce postprandial glycemia. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105(12), 1939–1942.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2005.07.012

– Johnston, C.S. et al. (2010) ‘Examination of the Antiglycemic Properties of Vinegar in Healthy Adults’, Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism, pp. 74–79. https://doi.org/10.1159/000272133.

– Pazuch, C.M. et al. (2015) ‘Vinegar : functional aspects’, Cientifica Jaboticabal, 43(4), pp. 302–308. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.15361/1984-5529.2015v43n4p302-308.

– Perumpuli, P.A.B.N. and Dilrukshi, D.M.N. (2022) ‘Vinegar : A functional ingredient for human health’, International Food Research Journal, 29(October), pp. 959–974. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.47836/ifrj.29.5.01.

– Raspor, P., & Goranovic, D. (2008). Biotechnological applications of acetic acid bacteria. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 28(2), 101–124.  https://doi.org/10.1080/07388550802046749

– Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 establishing a common organisation of the markets in agricultural products and repealing Regulations (EEC) No 922/72, (EEC) No 234/79, (EC) No 1037/2001 and (EC) No 1234/2007 of the Council. (2013). Official Journal of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2013/1308/oj/ita

– Shishehbor, F., Mansoori, A., & Shirani, F. (2017). Vinegar consumption can attenuate postprandial glucose and insulin responses: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 127, 1–9.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.01.021

– Wu, Q. et al. (2023) ‘Protective mechanism of fruit vinegar polyphenols against AGEs-induced Caco-2 cell damage’, Food Chemistry: X, 19(May).  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2023.100736.

– Xia, T. et al. (2021) ‘Polyphenol-rich vinegar extract regulates intestinal microbiota and immunity and prevents alcohol-induced inflammation in mice’, Food Research International, 140(December 2020), p. 110064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.110064.

– Xia, T. et al. (2022) ‘The anti-diabetic activity of polyphenols-rich vinegar extract in mice via regulating gut microbiota and liver inflammation’, Food Chemistry, 393(February), p. 133443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133443.

– Xia, T. et al. (2024) ‘Beneficial effect of vinegar consumption associated with regulating gut microbiome and metabolome’, Current Research in Food Science, 8(March 2023), p. 100566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crfs.2023.100566.